Ever since scientists discovered influenza infecting American cows earlier this year, they have been puzzling over how it spreads from one animal to another. An experiment carried out in Kansas and Germany has shed some light on the mystery.

Scientists failed to find evidence that the virus can spread as a respiratory infection. Juergen Richt, a virologist at Kansas State University who helped lead the research, said that the results suggested that the virus is mainly infectious via contaminated milking machines.

Continue reading “How Does Bird Flu Spread in Cows? Experiment Yields Some ‘Good News.’” →

For 30 years, archaeologists have been digging at Jamestown, the first permanent British settlement in America. The trumpets, children’s shoes, pistols and millions of other unearthed objects have provided fresh clues to what life was like at the fort that settlers built in 1607 on the James River in Virginia.

Now, some of the most intriguing clues are coming from bones — not of the people who lived in Jamestown, but of the dogs.

Continue reading “Famine Drove Jamestown Settlers to Eat Native Dogs, DNA Reveals” →

For millions of years, mammoths lumbered across Europe, Asia and North America. Starting roughly 15,000 years ago, the giant animals began to vanish from their vast range until they survived on only a few islands.

Eventually they disappeared from those refuges, too, with one exception: Wrangel Island, a land mass the size of Delaware over 80 miles north of the coast of Siberia. There, mammoths held on for thousands of years — they were still alive when the Great Pyramids were built in Egypt.

Continue reading “The Last Stand of the Woolly Mammoths” →

A flounder looks like a hallucination of a fish. Its body is flat as a pancake, its head permanently tilted to one side, and instead of having one eye on each side of its head, both eyes are crowded on one side.

This anatomy, as weird as it may be, is one of evolution’s remarkable success stories. Flounder, like more than 800 other species of flatfish, lie flat on the sea floor, their two eyes gazing up at the water overhead. When a smaller fish swims by, a flatfish shoots up and strikes. One species, the Pacific halibut, can grow to the size of a barn door.

Continue reading “How Flounder Wound Up With an Epic Side-Eye” →

For thousands of years, philosophers have argued about the purpose of language. Plato believed it was essential for thinking. Thought “is a silent inner conversation of the soul with itself,” he wrote.

Many modern scholars have advanced similar views. Starting in the 1960s, Noam Chomsky, a linguist at M.I.T., argued that we use language for reasoning and other forms of thought. “If there is a severe deficit of language, there will be severe deficit of thought,” he wrote.

Continue reading “Do We Need Language to Think?” →